ARLT Chinese Imagination Essay - 1578 Words

Repay your love and friendship Chinese literature, for example, ancient poetry, lyrics, and traditional Chinese stories, reveals many different kinds of good personalities of people. According to a famous ancient Chinese philosopher, Confucius ( ¿Ãƒâ€"Ãâ€"Ó), men are born to be kind (ÈËÃâ€" ®Ã‚ ³Ãƒ µÃ‚ ©o à Ãƒâ€Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ¾Ãƒâ€°Ãƒâ€ ). Everyone has his or her own good qualities and sometimes they are just hidden and needed to be explored and discovered. In traditional China, people had a strong sense of repayment (ˆÃ ³Ã‚ ´Ãƒ °). People who do not have this ability to repay others who have helped them before are usually being looked down on. The sense of repayment is perhaps a product of a good friendship or love. And the boundary of love here in this case, is not only about the love†¦show more content†¦However, here Li Wa gives a speech which shows her decency and qualities of being, later, a noblewoman. She notices that it is totally her and her mother ¡Ã‚ ¯s fault which causes the young man to suffer and the broken relationship between the young man and his father. She has been devoted and respectful to her mother but she does not do this over the line. Li Wa does what she believes to be right and what she ought to do. She pays her mother for her freedom. However, she still offers to  ¡Ã‚ °live in a place close by, so that [they (Li Wa and the young man)] can still pay [their] respects to [her mother] daily. ¡  ± The author once again lets us see that Li Wa shows her filial piety to her so-called  ¡Ã‚ °mother ¡Ã‚ ± and that she does this as a repayment to her mother for being her  ¡Ã‚ °mother ¡Ã‚ ± for twenty years.  ¡Ã‚ °The Courtesan Li Wa ¡Ã‚ ± is a very clear and good example to show how repayment and filial piety are tied together.  ¡Ã‚ °The Leper Girl ¡Ã‚ ± is another story which is in the theme of filial piety. Ch ¡Ã‚ ¯en Ch ¡Ã‚ ¯i is a very positive and devoted character which shows filial piety. Ch ¡Ã‚ ¯en Ch ¡Ã‚ ¯i, with the help of the old man Ssu-kung who is Ch ¡Ã‚ ¯en Ch ¡Ã‚ ¯i ¡Ã‚ ¯s uncle ¡Ã‚ ¯s friend in Kwangtung, is introduced to Li-yu ¡Ã‚ ¯s family. He realizes that his personal background is not good enough to match Li-yu ¡Ã‚ ¯s family, so he first hesitates to even go there. Later he keeps himself very well-mannered and humble and asks for an absence of a short period of time after the marriage in order to transport hisShow MoreRelatedThe Origin Of The Dragon2970 Words   |  12 PagesJacob Rey Professor Ellen Oliveira ARLT – 100G 7 October 2014 Dragons Transformed Dragon have been predominant in many cultures for centuries. Its function may differ culture to culture but its identity has become a universal symbol; we all have the dragon in common. Dragons are everywhere and appear to be the most documented creature in all of ancient history, second to that of the human being (Isaacs 19). These magnificent creatures like any other monster have an origin. Scholars, however, debate

Distribution Based On The Hotel Website Design Essay

Distribution strategy Our motel cannot be everything to every guest. Rather the focus should be on supporting channels of distribution based on the customers the company intends to cater to. We are trying to target consumers looking for ‘best value’ while booking a room or are you only looking at the ‘price-conscious’ booker or you have some other consideration. Meeting evolving content requirements of intermediaries- Maintaining direct connection and executing new functionality calls for resources which affects the cost per channel. Sale force requirements Our motel will use the telephone sales and internet sales. Now desktop and laptop Internet browsing is still king of the web, but soon, mobile browsing will trump it. Until then, it is still critical to craft a branded, unique web presence for your property. You need a modern, up-to-date website built with forward-looking technology that won’t be outdated in ten years. Full details on exactly what should be included in your website are found in our article on hotel website design, but in short you must have high-resolution, professionally produced photos of your property, detailed room descriptions including all of your unique amenities, a thorough collection of local points of interest, complete with photography, an interactive map and quick driving directions, and finally, an online booking engine. These are critical tools about how to market a hotel. Request a demo of our hotel marketing software to learn more aboutShow MoreRelatedWhat Makes A Good Mobile?1451 Words   |  6 Pagesbeen a strong discussion about whether responsive is really fit for purpose for hotels web and mobile presence, or whether a separate mobile-focused webapp and desktop/tablet website is better. A strong advantage of responsive sites is that the content is largely the same and managed in one place, it s just adjusted physically to match different screen sizes or devices. This makes it easier to deal with for the hotel, and ensures a consistent image and brand projection across devices for the userRead MorePorters 5 Forces on Orbitz1288 Words   |  6 PagesOrbitz’s mission is â€Å"to be one of the world’s three primary hotel distribution platforms.† Their strategy for achieving this mission is to focus on three key drivers: demand, supply, and retail. To increase demand, strategies include further increasing brand awareness and customer loyalty, developing sophisticated statistical analytics to enhance efficiency of search engine marketing spending, a nd increasing the traffic coming to websites through search engine optimization, customer relationship managementRead MoreApplication of a Differentiation Strategy in an Organization1092 Words   |  4 Pageseffective competitive strategy should be based on the organization’s goals and objectives as well as the market situation (Allen Helms, 2006). 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The intelligenceRead MoreThe Starbucks Corporations Marketing Strategy1293 Words   |  5 Pagesnot market its product or the firm aggressively but drives its sales through the image and reputation it has developed (Larson, 2009). Distribution Elements in the Companys Marketing Strategy: Following the development of a strong product, the second major marketing decision area that a company should consider is distribution. Decisions regarding distribution are geared towards establishing a system that enables customers to easily access and buy the firms products. Nonetheless, marketers areRead MoreCompetitive Advantages And Disadvantages Swot Analysis1105 Words   |  5 PagesTripAdvisor, and eLong. Expedia has large scale of operation. Is larger than its competitors what gives them ability to have better access to financial, technical, and human resources. Expedia has extensive distribution network. What mean besides of their own website they also serve on their branded websites. Weaknesses: Over dependence on the U.S. Market. Even tho Expedia is a worldwide company it still makes most of their revenue from the U.S. Market what makes it more dependent of the economy of

Theory Practice Revolt In Medieval England â€Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Theory Practice Revolt In Medieval England? Answer: Introducation Taxation is the term which denotes to the coercive or compulsory amount of money that is collected by any levying authority which basically encompasses the governmental authority. Taxation is the term which is applicable to all kinds of involuntary levies right from income to the gains in capital which further leads to the estate taxes. Taxation is very different in approach as compared to the other forms of payments like the market exchange and different other services. The governmental organizations are accountable regarding the collection of taxation through various implicit and explicit ways or threat of action (Aust, 2013). The taxation varies from the extortion and protection racket as the organization on which taxation is implemented is a governmental and not private agency. The system of tax varies with the variation on places and countries which basically denotes to the variations in location. Taxation is found to be imposed basically on the physical and tangible assets such as the events, transactions of sales and properties. The devising of tax is one of the most important aspect and issues in the political arena. Taxation can be further regarded as the principle on the basis of which the government raises the revenue. The government of any country will not be able to implement the laws in the states in a proper which would lead to many issues is the import and export of various products in the country without the imposition of taxation. Therefore, taxation has a very crucial role in the delivery of the public goods or products to different communities. There are many ways in which the government of any country can happen to raise the revenue such as: charging of fees can be devised by the governmental organizations for rendering services. The governmental organization can also implement the granting of the license regarding imposing amounts as fines in the case of breach of various laws and design new rules and laws regarding different investments and assets (Beatty, 2015). Taxation can be very well differentiated from different other forms of payments as it does not need any kind of consent and is not associated with any rendered services. Systems of taxation have varied in a considerable manner across time and jurisdiction. Taxes can be further stated as the special systems which are imposed on various communities. The laws of taxation are denoted as the frameworks of laws which assist in governing the liabilities of the individuals and the organization for paying the tax. Taxes economics all the rules and regulations along with the establishment of the base of the tax and the implementation of the taxes. It is observed as the Australia comprises of a vast structure of laws of taxation. The key source of Australia is based on regarding finding hundreds of pages consisting the legislation of taxes which are enacted by the territory parliaments , commonwealth and the federal state (Brigham, 2014). Calculation of the net gain or loss in the capital for the current year The laws of taxation are implemented and regulated by the commonwealth constitution along with the international treaties which encompass the Double Tax Agreements to associate with the foreign countries. Taxation is very important and useful regarding various challenges and studies associated with the society due to the vast and expanded nature along with the complexities in technologies (Brigham Ehrhardt, 2013). Right from the last years, it was observed that many steps and attempts were taken by Eric who involved many attempts for the solicitation of some of the assets. In accordance to the question, the assumption had been made that he had those specific assets since one year. The capitals taxability is found to increase when there is an increase in the selling price of the specific assets right from the base cost. The cost of indexation will not valid in the case of Eric as he had not made any reservations of the assets for more duration of time than just a year. Assets are the material and tangible things that are brought by the customers for their personal use and pleasures. This personal usage does not encompass the collectibles. These tangible assets are sold again to a different individual and the taxability does not play into the case in which the costs of acquisition of the considered assets are found to be less than $10000. The item that was acquired by Eric initially is the sound system for his home which was supposed to have the cost of acquisition as $ 12000. The asset which was bought by Eric secondly is the share of a company which had the cost of acquisition to be less than the previous one which is $15000 (Dafflon, 2015). Assets which were brought by Eric for personal pleasures and enjoyment do not involve the taxability of the gain in the capital as the costs of procurement of the assets is very much less than or equivalent to $500. On the basis of this information, Eric had taken over the collectibles. The asset which was taken over by Eric at first is the painting which has cost of acquisition as $90000 (Filatova, 2014). The asset that was secondly captured by Eric is the antique chair which has cost of acquisition as $30000. The last asset which was acquired by Eric is the antique vase. It had acquisition costs of $2000 correspondingly. Application On the basis of the entire discussion, the following table has been formulated which are used in the calculation of the corresponding assets. Estimation of Capital Particulars Cost Base of Assets Capital Proceeds of Assets Net Capital Gain/ (Net Capital Loss) Antique Vases 2,000 3000 1000 Gain Antique Chairs 3,000 1000 (2000) Loss Painting of the assert 9,000 1000 (8000) Loss Shares that are listed in the company 5,000 20000 15000 Gain Sound system ofr home 12,000 11000 (1000) Loss Net Capital Gain/Loss 5000n Assets that are taken over or acquired for a time period that is more than a year for any kind of personal use or pleasure, taxation of the capital is valid and applicable in such cases. Taxability is valid and applicable on the collectibles which are acquired with the costs more than $500. The losses in the capital for the entire year have been fixed with the required net worth of loss or gain. Loan sanctioned by Brain Brian has recommended a new and innovative system to the employees in which he was offering loan for time duration of three years with the rate of interest being one percent on a monthly basis. Because of this idea which involves $ 1 million, many individuals turned up to open a bank account and receive the benefits and advantages of the loans which were offered to the employees by Brian (Francks Francks, 2015). He was making the offer of the rate of interest that was less than the rate of interest that was offered in the market. Apart from this offer, in order to calculate the taxability of such kinds of benefits, the rate of the statutory interest need to be considered. In accordance to the question, the interest rate of statutory will be accounted as 5.56 percent as the loan was made to be offered on the date of 1st April, 2016. In the first step, the benefits of the loan will be computed after the eradication of the rule. The loan interests are determined on the basis of the actual interest rate that should be deducted from the loan which is determined due to the statutory rate of interest. The rate of interest which are based on the statutory interest = $ 1000000 * 5.65 percent = $ 56,500. The interest which are based in the actual interest = $ 1000000 * 1 percent= $10000. The taxation is varying in both the scenarios, which is $ 56, 500 - $ 10,000 = $ 46,500. In the second step, Brian needs to follow the next step. He must compute the rate of statutory interest after the acceptance of the amount to be payable and real. The interest rate is $1000000 * 5.65 percent = $56,500. In the third step, from the whole percent, only 40 percent was utilized in the implementation of the meeting for the upcoming events, where Brian has calculated the costs from which tax was deducted manually which is $ 56,500 * 40 perc ent = $ 22, 600. According to the fourth step, from the entire amount of the loan, 40 percent was utilized in the meeting for the near future by Brian which involves the real amount that amounts to as $10000 * 40 percent = $4,000. In the fourth step, apart from the above mentioned steps, the actual amount is then computed in this step from the manual amount so as to arrive at the desired conclusion. Hence, $22,600 - $4,000 = $ 18,600. The final amount, in the final step, needs to be calculated by subtracting the amount from the first step after calculating the amount till 5th step. Hence, $46,500 - $ 18,600 = $ 27,900. However, if there happens to be any kind of system if repayment of such loans right before the period of termination, in that case, instead of the conventional system of repayment, the period deemed of the loan will be considered from starting period of the interest or become payable (Leigh Blakely, 2016). Other than this, the obligation is on the section of the repaying mode of the interests, then in these kinds of scenarios, the calculation need to be conducted in a very similar way such as the actual rate of interest that is considered as 0. Regarding loan of Jack and Jill Both Jack and Jill have made an management for borrowing the money for the house which they have rented. In the agreement it has been structured that Jack was allotted to receive ten percent of the profits, on the other hand, Jill was eligible to receive ninety percent of the profit deriving out of the whole property. In accordance to the agreement made on between Jack and Jill, in any scenario which would involve any kind of loss in the property, the entire amount of loss, that is 100 percent, will be handled by Jack. Jack and Jill, in previous year, had sustained a loss of around $1000 that was completely paid by Jack with no obligation of any of the losses on Jill who is Jacks wife (Meese Oman, 2013). The loss resulted in a set off on the other different forms of incomes of Jack that would determine the net loss or profit for the whole year. Jack, apart from this specific option, has one more choice which is regarding carrying the whole loss in the forward direction for the upcoming year. In any scenario where Jack is confronting any kind of loss, and then he has the complete right to bear the complete amount and can take the amount forward in the future years so as to maintain the net loss in the amount or the net income. In the second scenario, is there is any amount of gain, and then the particular amount will be categorized between Jack and his wife Jill effectively in the ratio of 10:90. In such cases, Jack has the complete right for setting off the total loss of $1000 which resulted after the sale of the property. Hence, from the whole discussion, it was decided that Jack was able to handle the losses which had occurred in the last year and he is obtaining the amount in the current year after the sale of the property (Mumford, 2017). The conclusion was made which stated that if Jack happens to not have any gain in the recent year, he, in such case, has to be accountable to pay for the entire loss with no involvement of his wife Jill. Hence, this process has been a great assistance to Jill for staying away from the effects of taxation where as Jack is only accountable to bear the entire loss. Legal Plan In accordance to the law, every person has the power regarding the legal strategies and plans which assist them in decreasing the net amount of income at the end of each year, according to the case scenario study of the IRC versus Duke of Westminster [1936] AC 1 (Seyoum, 2013). After getting into the details of the case after analyzing the case properly, it was clarified that each individual obtains the right of utilizing the benefits and rights which are attached to the overall income. In the terms which are familiar, the rights which are valid only in the scenarios where they are used in a very fair manner and the appropriate methods which are applied to it , that is supposed for the reduction of the income costs and the values to a tax at the end of that particular year (Valente, 2017). The following principles are categorized from the above scenario of the case study: The entire authority has been awarded to the individual for using the strategic plans and methods for the reduction of the total income by regulating their own individual accounts. There will be no extra taxes levies or implemented if the process will be carried out in an appropriate manner without any methods or means that are illegal. When an individual follows the legal and fair way for reduction of the rate of tax and amount, then they will not be enforced for paying the extra rate of tax in the near future. The point number can be stated as valid unless any new kind of law is executed in the nation. The ideology is very different from each other and keeps varying from the previous year. The key objective of these rules has a prominent role and importance in the present circumstance in different manners (Vatn, 2015). Considering an instance, in the scenario in which a business is confronted with great deal of losses in a specific year that attends to its obligations, in such conditions, the business has the chance for the alterations in the amount and balance sheets. The business can make preparations regarding the new one with the assets that are fixed and the value of the assets. In certain cases, the business did not happen to provide the documents that are relevant but however, they can carry out the implementation further. However, specific restrictions are appropriate for them (Verdier Voeten, 2014). They must not follow any kind of illegal ways for achieving so. Summarizing the entire discussion, it is clearly evident that the business organization has to function in a very transparent and legal manner for achieving the business target and need to follow the rules and laws along with its procedures. Land issue of Bill In this case, Bill acquired a piece of land that he has considered for using it for the purpose of grazing by the sheep. So as to fulfill his wishes, the whole land requires to be cleared as much number of trees was planted over there. Hence, he had hired a company that provides logging services for clearing the entire land (Wagner, 2013). The logging company has charged Bill with $ 1000 for every 100 meters of the timber. However, the key question that arises in this case is that whether the tax is applicable on the company providing logging services for the whole amount. In accordance to the given situation, there are no presences of any fact on the receipts which are received from the logging company that is considered as the object of revenue or might not be assumed to be an object. The highest degree of uncertainty states that the rules that are associated to the gains in the capital are not suitable and applicable in the recent circumstances of Bill (Yan Luo, 2016). When the Bill is making an investment of the entire amount of $50000 to the company providing logging services for the removal of the trees for getting the timbers, the equal and entire amount is transferred to the hands of Bill in the form of the receipt of capital. This happens because of the reason in which the entire amount is considered as a lump sum and there is more recurring receipt for the reason. Again, the transaction which has occurred facilitates the provision of the right to the specific authority for the removal of the trees from the particular land. Hence, after the complete scenario, the case was assumed to be as the receipt of lump sum along with the net capital receipt. Hence, taxation of the capital is in the responsibility of Bill. Conclusion Therefore, in the above scenarios, the value of, money that was put into investment has played a great role and has a key significance in the laws of taxation. These two cases are very much different from each other. In the first case scenario, the receipt is in the accountability of Bill and is recurring. On the other hand, the receipt is in the accountability of Bill, however, it is not recurring which provides the right of receiving the payments from the logging of the tress in the upcoming situations. He will receive the same receipt in a bigger investment and that will be taken into consideration as the receipt in one- time (Verdier Voeten, 2014). These are the considerations as the receipt in the kind of one-time as when they are made to be removed from the land, it will consume more time for growing the trees again on the same section of land. Thus, in the next upcoming situation, Bill is getting sufficient amount of money from the other side. This act is regarded as a lump s um by making the assets getting sold. When one of the parties sells the product to the opposition party, then the same receipt has to be considered along with the taxation. When the observation was made regarding the first case, it did not attract any gain in the tax, and then it needs to be treated as a normal and conventional gain and no gain in capital. References Aust, A., 2013.Modern treaty law and practice. Cambridge University Press. Beatty, D.M., 2015.Constitutional law in theory and practice. University of Toronto Press. Brigham, E.F., 2014. Financial management theory and practice. Atlantic Publishers Distri. Brigham, E.F. and Ehrhardt, M.C., 2013.Financial management: Theory practice. Cengage Learning. Dafflon, B., 2015. The assignment of functions to decentralized government: from theory to practice.Handbook of multilevel finance, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, pp.163-199. Filatova, T., 2014. Market-based instruments for flood risk management: a review of theory, practice and perspectives for climate adaptation policy.Environmental science policy,37, pp.227-242. Francks, P. and Francks, P., 2015.Japanese economic development: theory and practice. Routledge. Leigh, N.G. and Blakely, E.J., 2016.Planning local economic development: Theory and practice. Sage Publications. Meese, A.J. and Oman, N.B., 2013. Hobby Lobby, Corporate Law, and the Theory of the Firm: Why For-Profit Corporations Are RFRA Persons.Harv. L. Rev. F.,127, p.273. Mumford, A., 2017.Taxing culture: towards a theory of tax collection law. Routledge. Seyoum, B., 2013.Export-Import theory, practices, and procedures. Routledge. Valente, C., 2017.The theory and practice of revolt in medieval England. Routledge. Vatn, A., 2015. Markets in environmental governance. From theory to practice.Ecological Economics,117, pp.225-233. Verdier, P.H. and Voeten, E., 2014. Precedent, compliance, and change in customary international law: An explanatory theory.American Journal of International Law,108(3), pp.389-434. Wagner, R.E., 2013.Charging for Government (Routledge Revivals): User Charges and Earmarked Taxes in Principle and Practice. Routledge. Yan, A. and Luo, Y., 2016.International joint ventures: Theory and practice. Routledge

Opinions and Social Pressure When You Need to Go Outside the System

Introduction: Because They Say So. The Significance of the Authority Walking along the borderline that splits the world into a norm and the abnormal is one of the life’s most dangerous pleasures. Laws and rules are made for a reason, and breaking them means not only doing something unacceptable by the given society, in the given time and given circumstances, but also being separated from the rest of the world for a while and becoming an outcast.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Opinions and Social Pressure: When You Need to Go Outside the System specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Unless one has serious concerns for his/her well-being, (s)he is unlikely to go beyond the boundaries the authorities set, since it is the existing system of rules that helps people to feel safe; however, when there is something essential at stake, one will definitely disregard the existing rules and go against the established standa rds of conduct. What the Authorities Are Meant for: The League of Justice Is on the Watch However, the question is, what the authority figures are meant for. On the surface, these people help the rest of the humankind feel considerably safer and know for sure that nothing happens to people as long as the latter follow what the authorities say. Rather important function, it is yet not the most essential one; when digging a bit deeper into the issue, one must add that the function of the authorities also contains an element of guidance, i.e., serving people as the social weather vane pointing in the right direction and helping to figure out what is right and what is wrong and, which is the most important, to grant his/her approval. Even when there is no obvious authority in the sight, and, therefore, no way to check the ultimately right position, people are apt to follow with the decisions that the group makes, thus, admitting the authority of the many, since the latter are likely to accept their follower into their mini-society: â€Å"When we’re in a group, we tend to think as that group does: we may even have joined the group to find ‘like-minded’ people† (Lessing 724). Pushing the Rules to the Breaking Point: The Passion Rules the Game However, there comes the time when the social rules are no longer an option. However, as it has been mentioned previously, following the standards of the society is crucial for people and is actually a part of their nature; therefore, the question is, what exceptional factors can push one to cross the threshold of the social standards and willingly face the threat of becoming a social outcast. Analyzing some of the most obvious factors, one can possibly see that, at certain points, the boundaries of law can become way too restrictive. Plotting a rebellion. The stubborn individuals The first and the foremost idea that crosses peoples’ minds when they think of going against the opinion of the aut horities is the image of a tough rebel. In fact, this is pretty much the firs reason that makes people take a track which is different from the other alternatives.Advertising Looking for essay on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More According to Lessing, the element that presupposes more freedom and allows people to feel that they actually do the things which they consider right, not the ones which are offered them by the obtrusive social norms, is a really strong factor in determining the ultimate choice. As Lessing explains, taking the example with the people who have been given the wrong instructions by an authority and the ones who are allowed to make a choice on their own, the aspect of a â€Å"stubborn individual† is pretty important: â€Å"the solitary individual, or the couple, who have not been so instructed will assert that the pieces of wood or whatever are different† (724). Depending on th e situation: under the spur of the moment Another factor which can shape people’s idea of the issue in question and enhance free thinking instead of following the voice of the authority blindly is the environment. Once the outer factors do not favor the choice accepted by the social standards, one is likely to act against the accepted norms. When something truly important is at stake, e.g., life, health, etc., the choice is made disregarding the social standards. Indeed, as McEwan explains, â€Å"The situations in which we act can powerfully influence our behavior – including out choice to obey or disobey a questionable order† (689). Against the decisions of the group mind: walking alone The last, but not the least, the aspect of â€Å"group mind† (Ross and Nisbett 746) is also extremely powerful, yet it lacks logics much. In contrast to the previous cases, when the opinion of a single person depended on the ones of the many simply because the society wou ld have never accepted any other manner of behavior, in the given case, one acts just because the others would do so in a given situation. Paradoxical and yet understandable, this is the case when the problem comes rather from the inside than from the outside – it is not the society that puts pressure on an individual, but an individual who is unable to think on his/her own. Conclusion: Disobeying In the Name of Law. Escape the Pressure Therefore, it is clear that going against the established norms is extremely untypical for a basic human being; on the contrary, these are only the extraordinary cases when one decides to break the rules and oppose the crowd. However, it turns out that, when it comes to the factors which make people make a decision to go against the established norms, these are mostly the factors threatening people’s well-being or social status that make one cross the boundaries of the established norms, morals or even laws.Advertising We will writ e a custom essay sample on Opinions and Social Pressure: When You Need to Go Outside the System specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Despite the fact that among the factors listed above, the aspect of preserving one’s individuality is mentioned as well, it can still be considered that people tend to break the rules in order to stay safer, no matter how weird that can sound. Sometimes allowing them to keep their social status intact, and sometimes made for the sake of staying original and following one’s own idea of what is right and what is wrong, going against the opinion of the many serves as both the means to enhance one’s status as a self-assured and self-sufficient personality and at the same time reassure oneself that the decision has been made despite the opinion of the authorities, which also raises one’s self-esteem. Therefore, it can be concluded that, disregarding the factors surrounding the situatio n, a decision made against the authorities is an attempt to enter another stage of one’s personal development. Works Cited Lessing, Doris. â€Å"Group Minds.† Writing and Reading Across the Curriculum, 11th  Edition. Ed. Laurens Behrens and Leonard J. Rosen. London, UK: Longman, 2010. 723-725. Print. McEwan, Ian. â€Å"From Atonement.† Writing and Reading Across the Curriculum, 11th  Edition. Ed. Laurens Behrens and Leonard J. Rosen. London, UK: Longman, 2010. 688-692. Print. Ross, Lee and Richard E. Nisbett. â€Å"The Power of Situations.† Writing and Reading  Across the Curriculum, 11th Edition. Ed. Laurens Behrens and Leonard J. Rosen. London, UK: Longman, 2010. 745-750. Print. This essay on Opinions and Social Pressure: When You Need to Go Outside the System was written and submitted by user Jimmy E. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Nuclear Arms Race free essay sample

Structure Objectives Introduction Background to the Nuclear Arms Race 9. 2. 1 9. 2. 2 9. 2. 3 The Beginning : Birth of the Nuclear Arms Race The Manhatten Project Rationale for the Arms Race in the Post War Period The Nuclear Arms Race : How it is different from all the Previous Arms Races in History 9. 3. 1 9. 3. 2. 9. 3. 3. The Trinity Test Hiroshima and Nagasaki Bombings New York Times and the Trinity Test Different Phases of the Nuclear Arms Race in the Post-War Period 9. 4. 1 9. 4. 2 9. 4. 3 9. 4. 4 9. 4. 5 9. 4. 6 9. 4. 7 9. 4. 8 Fear of the Soviets and Communism 945 to 1953 : Period of US Monopoly 1957 to 1968 : Period of Missile Crisis and the ICBM Race 1968 to late 1970s : Period of MIRV and ICBM Race 1981 : Reagans Strategic Modernization Plan 1983 : Militarization of Space-Reagans Star War Programme 1984-1991 : Nuclear Arms Race in the Gorbachev Era and the last days of collapsing Soviet Union. 1991 to 1997 : Nuclear Arms Race after the Collapse of Soviet Union Nuclear Arm s Race in the Third World and South Asia 9. 5. 1 9. 5. 2 95. 3 9. 5. 4 Acquisition of Nuclear Capability by China and start of Arms Race in South Asia India, Pakistan and the Nuclear Arms Race Domino Theory in South Asia General Complexion of Arms Race in South Asia Let Us Sum Up Key Words Some Useful Books Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises 9. We will write a custom essay sample on Nuclear Arms Race or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page 0 OBJECTIVES This unit deals with Arms Race and the Nuclear Threat in the present day world. After studying this unit, you will be in a position to: understand the background to the nuclear arms race; explain how the nuclear arms race is different from all the previous arms races; discuss the different phases of the nuclear arms race in the post-war period; and emarnine the nuclear arms race in the Third World and especially in South Asia. . 1 INTRODUCTION This unit on Arms Race and Nuclear Threat is part of Block 3 which deals with what is called the Cold War Period; i. e. , after the Second World War and the emergence of what is termed as Superpower Dominance. In Unit World War 11: Causes and Consequences (Emergence of Super Powers) you have read about how the USA and the USSR emerged as Superpowers in international politics after the end of the Second World War. In Unit 7 : Cold War: Meaning, Patterns and Dimensions, you have learnt how the collapse of Germany and its allies in 1945 led to the emergence of what has been termed as Cold War between the-two main powers of the post-1945 international order * i. e. USA and USSR. The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) which was dealt with in Unit 8 of this block was a consequence of the cold war power bloc politics. One thing common to the post-1945 international order as well as the pre-1945 world was the arms race. When studying about World War I and 11, you would have surely read about the arms race which was both quantitative and qualitative in character. It would also have been noticed that the arms race in its qualitative dimension in both the world wars was itself one of the greatest causes of the two wars. From the invention of dynamite by Sir Alfred Nobel of the Novel Industries in the First World War period, to the invention of rockets by Germany in the Second World War, it is the search for the ultimate weapon which could win all wars that constituted the greatest push for the arms race. In this madness scientists, nations, people, soldiers, politicians all fell prey and ended up only killing greater and greater number of civilians. In the present unit, we will concentrate on the arms race in the post-1945 international order. As has been stated before, this quest for a qualitatively more destructive weapon was the greatest motivating factor in bringing the world a step closer to war, be it the First or the Second World War. The key difference in the arms race before 1945 (i. e. in the interwar period) and after 1945 was the nuclear dimension. Prior to 1945, all the arms races in human history never confronted what is now popularly known as the Nuclear Threat. After 1945, the arms race that humanity got engaged in became the greatest living threat to life itself as known on this planet. The difference lies in one single qualitative step in the arms race, and that step was the creation of the Atomic or Nuclear bomb in 1945. Thus, from 1945 the arms race we discuss in this Unit, remained no longer conventional but acquired a nuclear character and from then till today, man is engaged in an arms race that puts both parties who engage in it, under a perpetual Nuclear Threat. 9. B ACKGROUNDTOTHENUCLEARARMSRACE 9. 2. 1 The Beginning : Birth of the Nuclear Arms Race The nuclear arms race between the superpowers began initially in the pre-second world war period between the Germans and the Allied Powers. It was in the context of this conflict prior to the Second World War that in 1938, at the Kaiser William Institute in Germany, Otto Hann and Dr. Fritz Steersman first split the atom. Lise Meitner and Otto Hann later declared this successful splitti ng of the atom amounting to a nuclear fission. It was a matter of coincidence that at this juncture in history, the greatest minds working on the atomic problem were Jews and that too, German. Hitlers rapid anti-Semitism during the period sent most of these great minds in Germany rushing to the USA where they were welcomed. These fleeing scientists informed the American military who were closely monitoring events in Europe. There was widespread apprehension that Germany might be the first to produce the nuclear bomb as the knowledge of splitting the atom was already available to it. Albert Einstein too was one of the refugees and he knew fully the significance of this discovery, for it was he who first unlocked the secret power of the atom to the modern world. He warned the President of the United States about it. 9. 2. 2 The Manhatten Project T he Americans under President Roosevelt were fully aware of the international implications and so began the race to build the bomb first. Roosevelt commissioned what was the top secret Man Hatten Project, the biggest scientific effort ever made costing 2 billion dollars under Maj. Gen. Leslie Groves to construct the atomic bomb in a record time. Robert Oppenheimer, Enrico Fermi, Herbert York, Edward Teller, Hans Beth and a host of other scientific luminaries were involved in the production of the first three nuclear bombs. The interesting aspect of this bomb construction was that though the initial enemy was Germany, slowly the real enemy for whom the bomb was constructed turned out to be the Soviet Union. In fact, Gen. Leslie Groves stated that he had no illusions that Soviets were the real enemy. -This fact is critical to an understanding of the post 1945 world. Arms Race and Nuclear Threat 1 Cold War Period 9. 2. 3 Rationale for the Arms Race in the Post War Period Germany, the first nation with whom the US engaged in the N-Arms race surrendered in May 1945 and all its nuclear facilities were destroyed, thus ending the first phase of an incipient nuclear arms race. Despite this the arms race had to continue once the weapons had been built. A new enemy across the horizon was discovered Communist Soviet Union. The fear of communism was ideologically fueling the furious pace of the A-Bomb construction. In that sense the emerging U. S. ilitary-industrial complex was not wrong. Communist USSR was definitely the biggest power confronting USA and its western allies once Germany collapsed. The world was definitely getting divided into two camps, the capitalist and the socialist and Europe including Germany was its first victims. The Allies could not do anything about it. Something had to be found, a new ultimate weapon which could stop and possibly destroy the march of communism. That something designed initially for fascist Germany and used for experimentation in Japan was to be probably used later against the Socialist Soviet union. This was the underlying ideological war cry in the American establishment and the subtle reason for continuing the arms race into the post-Second World War world era. The discovery of the split atom gave confidence to the United States that it could fight the cold war or iron-curtain that Winston Churchill said had descended over Europe. It was an indication that the new war after 1945 would be fought against the USSR. Check Your Progress 1 Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers. ii) C heck your answer with the model answers given at the end of the unit. 1) Examine the background to the nuclear arms race. 2) What are the rationale for the arms race in the post-war period? s 9. 3 THE NUCLEAR ARMS RACE : HOW IT IS DIFFERENT FROM ALL PREVIOUS ARMS RACES IN HISTORY 9. 3. 1 The Ikinity Test Of the three bombs constructed, the first was tested on July 16, 1945 at Alamagordo, New Mexico. It is known as the Trinity Test. The successful Trinity Test heralded the birth of the Nuclear-Bomb in human history and the dawn of the nuclear age. Neils Bohr, the famous Danish Physicist, prophetically observed the insetting arms race and its qualitative difference. In a letter to Resident Roosevelt on 3 July 1944 he mentioned that a weapon of unparalleled power was being created which would completely change all future conditions of warfare. Some scientists anticipating the arms race between the US and the USSR urged the American Government to share the nuclear secrets with Soviet Union and thus prevent an arms race. However, it is obvious that the scientists were too naive of the game of politics as well as the intensity of international politics. Such advice was never heard, and the race was continued in the hope of victory. To the military desperately looking for a way to deal with the Germans, the Japanese qnd finally the Soviets, the Trinity Test held out hope that they could win. 9. 3. 2 Hiroshima and Nagasaki Bombings Two more historical events, however, finally sealed the destiny of mankind. They were the dropping of the two remaining untested nuclear devices, i. e. , the 5 ton uranium bomb on Hiroshima on August 6 and on Nagasaki on August 8, 1945. Over 250,000 people died in both the cities and the living corpses who survived bled incessantly and were blackened with their skins hanging in shreds, their hair scorched to the roots. Most were totally naked, their clothes burnt from their bodies. George Bernard Shaw observed in Man and Superman about the art of killing that man, out does nature herself when he goes out to slay, he carries a marvel of mechanism that lets loose at the touch of his finger all the hidden molecular energies and leaves the javelin, the arrow and blow pipe of his fathers far behind. Hiroshima and Nagasaki exemplified that. . 3. 3 New York Times and the Ikinity Test It would be easier to comprehend the qualitative significance of nuclear arms race if we take note of two observations made at the time of the Trinity Test. The New York Times reporter who witnessed the test observed a light not of this world, the light of many suns in one. It was a surprise such as the world had never seen, a great green su per can climbing in a fraction of a second to a height of more than 8,000 ft, rising even higher until it touched the clouds, lighting earth and sky all round with a dazzling {uminosity. Up it went, a great ball ,of fire about a mile in diameter, changing colours, as it kept shooting upward, from deep purple to orange, expanding, growing bigger, rising as it was expanding, an elemental force freed from its bonds after being chained for billions of years. For a fleeting instant the colour was unearthly green, such as one only sees in the corona of the sun during a total eclipse. It was as though one had been privileged to witness the birth of the world to be present at the moment of creation when the Lord said: Let There Be Light. Robert Oppenheimer perhaps summarized in one line the destiny of modern mans predicament vis-a-vis his own creation, when he quoted the Gita to exclaim I have become death, destroyer of worlds. The roar created by the explosion at Alamagordo could be heard 50 miles afar and the pillar of fire that the New York Times reporter talked about rose 6 miles into the sky. These observations of the Trinity Test and the dropping of the bomb at Hiroshima and Nagasaki sum up why the arms race mankind got caught in after 1945 is totally different in its complexion from all the previous arms races in human history. The sad part, however, for any idealist scholar of international relations is that despite these evidences of destruction, the arms race continued with greater vigour and vengeance. Arms Race and Nuclear Threat Cold War Period Check Your Progress 2 Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers. ii) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of the unit. 1) What is the Trinity Test? 9. 4 DIFFERENT PHASES OF THE NUCLEAR ARMS RACE IN THE POST-WAR PERIOD 9. 4. 1 Fear of the Soviets and Communism It was the Trinity Test on July 16, 1945 that truly sparked off the nuclear arms race between the US and the Soviet Union. Despite the horror of Hiroshima and Nagasaki the race never stopped. The second fact that fuelled the nuclear arms race was the Soviet Communist enemy. This was, in fact, testified to by Gen. Leslie Groves who said he had no illusions as to whom the bomb was really being built for, i. e. , the Soviets. The ideological, political and military threat to capitalism by rising communism had to be dealt with. The discovery of the nuclear bomb was truly the biggest boost to the arms race. United Kingdom followed US-Soviet acquisition of the bomb in 1952, France in 1960 and China in 1964. The nuclear arms race passed through the following phases, they cannot be clearly distinguished from each other. 9. 4. 2 1945 to 1953: Period of US Monopoly During this period, the United States first enjoyed a total monopoly until 1953 and then, nuclear superiority. In this phase, the US territory was regarded as a sanctuary because the Soviets did not have any reciprocal delivery capability to reach the American targets from USSR. The United States, on the other hand, could attack the Soviet targets from American bases in Western Europe. 9. 4. 3 1957 to 1968 : Period of Missile Crisis and the ICBM Race T he monopoly enjoyed the US during the first phase was broken when the Soviets successfully tested the ICBM in 1957 creating what has been called the Missile Crisis in America. The advent of ICBMs shifted the focus of the nuclear arms race to strategic weapons; i. e. Inter-Continental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs), Sea Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs) and strategic or inter-continental bombers which provided the strategic tripod. In 1967, USSR tested what is called a Fractional Orbital Bombardment System. This accelerated the qualitative dimension of the nuclear arms race further into space. 9. 4. 4 1968 to Late 1970s : Period of MIRV and ICBM Race T he third phase in the nuclear arms race began when the American delivery technology took a gigantic leap by introducitfg what is called the Multiple Independently Targetable Re-entry Vehicle (MIRV) capability in their ICBMs in 1968. This meant that now one single l CBM could carry many small nuclear warhead fitted missiles which on reentering Soviet airspace would go in different directions hitting many targets. MIRV marked a tremendous exponential upgradation of the arms race. This sent shivers down the Soviets who, however, mastered the technology by 1974. During this phase, the Soviets deployed two other weapon systems. First, the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) system in 1968 and second, the first Anti-Satellite (ASAT) missile and warhead, thus ensuring that the arms race went on. Check Your Progress 3 Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers. ii) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of the unit. 1) Briefly examine the period of US Monopoly in the Arms Race. . 2) Describe the efforts made by the erstwhile Soviet Union to break the US Monopoly in armaments. 9. 4. 5 1981 : Regans Strategic Modernization Plan The next major technological tussle took place between the two Superpowers over the MX-Missile. On October 2, 1981 President Regan announced a strategic modernization plan at an estimated cost of $ 160 billion. The weapons systems planned included : (i) Missile Experimental or MX missle : 100 of these were to be built; (ii) B-IB Bombers : 100 of them to be built; (iii) STEALTH Bombers that are radar resistant by 1990s; (iv) TRIDENT-I1 D-5 missiles-one per year between 1983 and 1987; (v) Command Control and Intelligence system (C,I) to be modernized; (vi) NAVSTAR Satellite global positioning system; (vii) Encapsulated dormant missiles; (viii) TERCOM for precision guided cruise missile; an advanced communication system; (ix) Global Positioning System (GPS) for guidance of the ICBMs during the boost phase; (x) Route encrypted comunications to missiles or launchers; (xi) slackwire buoys radio reception by submarines; (xii) Fuel-Cell propulsion. 9. 4. 6 1983: Militarization of Space-Reagans Star Wars Programme The militarization of space began from 1958 and since then, over 2219 satellites-military and civilian have been launched by the superpowers and other nations, and 75% of the satellites launched have been for surveillance and military use, thus clearly violating the Space Treaty of 1967. On March 23, 1983 President Reagan announced the Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI) popularly called Star Wars Programme costing 1 trillion dollars to raise the militarization of space to a qunlitatively rlcr; high. The aim being to build both a ground based and space based Ballistic Missile Defence (BMD) to protect US territory against Soviet strategic missile attacks. Theoretically, the SDI programme, was supposed to be an alternative to the Mutual Assured Destruction or MAD dogma as it would provide Mutual Assured Survival. It was thought the render nuclear weapons obsolete be relying on three new types of nonnuclear weapon systems. These were : Arms Race and Nuclear Threat Cold War Period i) Kinetic Energy Weapons ii) Directed Energy Weapons and iii) Microwave Energy Weapons All these weapons were based on various types of chemicals, electromaphetic forces. and x-rays and lasers. The SDI programme did not take off for many reasons. They being: a) It was too expensive. b) It was not a sure technological venture, in the sense that it was far too complicated and thus not feasible. C) T he Soviets could easily render SDI ineffective by building a counter SDI. ) Reagan never consulted his European NATO allies and infact, surprised them by his announcement thus creating opposition to the programme in Europe. e) Reagan by signing the Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF) completely ended the political rationale of the SDI programme. f) In the USA itself, in the Congress and the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, both the Republicans and the Democrats were of the opinion that they would not allow SDI to pass at any cost and thus, damage the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty of 1972. Thus, they rejected SDI as otherwise it would have meant that the ABM Treaty alongwith SALT I and I1 would be nullified. Same would be the fate of START negotiations thus destroying the whole edifice of arms control and the start of an unbridled nuclear arms race. Added to this, many important scientists in USA, important people like James Schlesinger, former Secretary of Defense Mc-George Bundy, cold warriors likc George F. Kennan and Robert McNamara, former Secretary of Defence Harold Brown and a host of other people opposed the very fundamental logic of SDI that it would make the world safe of USA by removing the stability provided by the MAD capability of both the superpowers. Later on, the sweeping changes initiated by Michael Gorbachev within the USSR vide Glassnost and Perestroika and allowing democracy in Eastern Europe ended the whole logic of SDI. Check Your Progress 4 Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers. ii) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of the unit. 1) What were the main cornponcnts of US President Ronald Reagans Strategic Modernisation Plan? \ 2 ) What were the reasons for the criticism of Regans S DI P r o g r a ~ r i ; ~ , ~ ! 9. 4. 7 1984-1991: Nuclear Arms Race in the Gorbachev Era and the Last Days of Collapsing Soviet Union By January 1985, due to the damage already done by SDI of Ronald Reagan, massive rearmament programmes were on the both the sides, and the future direction of the arms race was dependent upon the two superpowers. The arms race was on at three levels of nuclear weaponary, i. e. ,-space weapons, intercontinental weapons, and intermediate nuclear weapons. The US position on militarization of space through SDI really put the arms negotiation in difficult state. The Soviet Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko said, If there were no advancement on the issues of outer space, it would be superfluous to discuss the possibility of reducing strategic armaments. The US in 1984 had a massive programme for rearmament of many types of weapon systems. The rearmament programme of USA consisted of more Sea Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs); about 800 more nuclear warheads to be fitted on sea and air delivery systems; MX missile testing; Midgetsman Missiles; the eighth Trident submarine fitted with more accurate SLBMs and 100 B -lB bombs. On the Soviet side, in 1984-1985 the rearmament meant rearmament of all Soviet SS-17s SS-18s and SS-19s into the MIRV ed mode, a new TYPHOON class submarine and testing a new type of more accurate SLBM. There was a reported attempt to make 40% of Soviet ICBMs on the movable mode instead of the existing 25% and all 243 Intermediate Range Ballistic Missiles (IRBMs) were to be deployed. All in all, 1984-85 was a period of massive rearmament of all weapon systems. In 1985-86, the picture as regards arms race was the same. There was no restraint. The only hope that some kind of arms control was possible was generated by the November 1985 summit meeting at Geneva between President Reagan and General Secretary Gorbachev where both in a joint statement stated that, The sides . have agreed that a nuclear war cannot be won and must never be fought. They also agreed to hold summit level meetings in 1987 and 1988. These words were an indirect admission by USA that the SDI was not workable. In other words, it recognised as unfeasible that the MAD doctrine could be replaced and a limited nuclear war waged by militarizing space was recognised as unfeasible. Apart from this, there was little progress in the talks on arms reduction in Europe. As regards the nuclear arms race in 1986-87, the situation was still more or less the same except that there was a little movement towards arms control. The US put its first MX ICBM and B-1B bomber on operational position and on a 24 hour alert. Deployment of Pershing I1 missiles and SS-20s continued in Europe. However, certain positive developments took place which definitely halted the arms race in the long run. First, the 27th CPSU Congress in February 1986 decided on Perestroika (Restructuring of Economy), Glasnost ( Openness and Democratization) and reversal of military confi. ontation in Europe and opening up of Eastern Europe. Second, the Raykiajavik summit on 11 and 12 October 1986 declared that a nuclear war could never be won and should never be fougkt. Third, within the USA a tattered Reagans economy and the Senates opposition to SDI hit US arms race plans. Fourth, there were differences between USA and its NATO Allies who were never consulted on SDI. Thus, though the arms race went on in 1986-87 it was definitely going to end soon. As regards 1987-88, on December 8, 1987 the Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF) was signed for the elimination of all intermediate and short range missiles. The agreement required the USA and USSR remove 2695 intermediate range GLBMs with a range of 1 000 to 5500 kms. It also envisaged the removal of GLBMs short range i. e. , 5 00 to 1000 kms. USSR agreed to remove 1836 missiles while USA removed 867 missiles. The INF Treaty saved the ABM Treaty from being neutralised by SDI, because with this treaty the rationale for SDI became even weaker and Reagan found it very difficult to push the matter in the Congress as well as with US public. In this sense, it saved the world from another dangerous dimension of arms race i. e. , the space opening UP. 1988-89 was another significant year as it too had something to show in terms of peace. Arms Race and Nuclear Threat Cold War Period 1988-83 can be characterised as the year of settlement of disputes in Afghanistan, Namibia, Iran-Iraq War, Israel-PLO and South Africa. It was also the year Gorbachev announced at the UN, unilateral reduction of Soviet troops and armaments in Europe amounting to 40% reduction of Soviet tank divisions and 50% of Soviet tanks deployed in GDR, Czechoslovakia and Hungary. This was a very significant political and military move as regards the continuation of conventional and nuclear arms race in Europe. 1989-90 can be characterized as the Year of Europe. By the end of 1989, almost all Soviet Allies in Eastern Europe and Central Europe except Rumania and Albania were free. In August 1989, the first non-communist government got elected in Poland. By November 9, 1989, the Berlin Wall had crashed. Elections also took place in Hungary, GDR and Czechoslovakia. On 29 December 1989 Vaclav Havel took over as the President of Czechoslovakia. At the Malta summit in December 1989, President Gorbachev showed readiness to regulate further and move ahead on the START process. Gewge Bush, the US President, hesitated a bit though he committed US towards a Chemical Weapon Ban and the required agreement in the future. 1990 was a year full of events. While Europe and the two superpowers were moving towards peace the Gulf was in flames with the invasion of Kuwait by Iraq on August 2, 1990. Apart from this, in 1990, the WARSAW Pact was dissolved on 3rd March. On June 1, 1990, US and USSR signed a treaty on the destruction of and non-production of chemical weapons and on multilateral measures to ban chemical weapons. It was decided that by 31 December, 1992, all chemical weapons in the world would be destroyed and only 5000 tons of agents would be kept. Then, the membership of the Missiles Technology Control Regime (MTCR) expanded. On November 20, 1990 there was the Treaty and a Joint Declaration of Conventional Armed Forces (CFF) forever reducing the nuclear threat in Europe. Check Your Progress 5 Note : i) Use the space given below for your answers. ii) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of the unit. 1) What were the salient features of the Nuclear Arms Race in the Gorbachev era? 9. 4. 1991 to 97 : Nuclear Arms Race after the Collapse of Soviet Union 1991-92 was a historic year in the sense that due to the collapse of USSR, the enemy that fueled the arms race for US militarists broke up into 14 new states. Yugoslav ia also broke up and in one stroke the enemy in so far as the US was concerned was gone and so, the whole political ideological basis of the nuclear arms race. The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait on 2nd August 1990 led to the launch of US and Allied coalition attack under UN auspices against Iraq on 17th January, 1991. It ended on 28th February, 1991 with the complete defeat of Iraq. Arms trade as a result showed a down-ward trend. In 1991 the total value of global arms trade touched $ 22, 114 million. This . was 20% less than in 1990. I In 1992-93 USA, the Russian Federation, France, and Britain all agreed to halt the nuclear arms race totally except vis-a-vis R D. At the regional level, there was further concretization of Europes complete demilitarization by the signing of the Helsinkl Document by all Eastern and West European countries. Added to this, there was the world summit on environment at Rio and UN Secretary Generals declaration of the Agenda for Peace. The peripd between 1993 and 1997 saw two other significant events taking place i n~the nuclear arms race. First, in 1995 the NPT review Conference took place for an indefinite extension of the treaty and on 24th September 1996, the Comprehensive Test Ban Traty (CTBT) was up for signature. US and the other nuclear weapons states and 60 other non-nuclear states signed the CTBT. India did not sign either the NPT or CTBT. The government argued that it did so to keep the nuclear weapons option open. This position taken by India brings us to the question of nuclear arms race in the Third World, dealt with in the following section. .; Check Your Progress 6 L Note : i) Use the space given below for your answer. ii) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of the unit. I) Examine the nuclear arms race after the collapse of the USSR. 9. 5 NUCLEAR ARMS RACE IN THE THIRD WORLD AND SOUTH ASIA r r T he nuclear arms race that went on in the First World throughout the Cold War definitely had its impact on the Third World. The quest of the German Bomb fueled the American Manhattan Project initially, and as the Second World War came to a close it was the Soviet ideological and military power manifest in the occupation of Eastern Europe that really put Americans firmly on the track of nuclear bomb making. However, at that time the Allies needed the Soviet Communists to destroy fascist Germany, Italy and Japan. Stalins intelligence agencies were well aware of the secret American nuclear programme and at Postdam, his suspicions were confirmed when President Roosevelt informed Stalin of a secret weapon. This knowledge fueled the Soviet desire to build the bomb at a feverish pace to counter the threat form c aptalist west. The bombing on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, though not really necessary were also a veiled threat to Soviets of the American resolve. These events in a way led to the nuclear arms race. After 1949, when Communist China emerged under Mao, it is believed that the Chinese through Soviet help (prior to Sino-Soviet split) too got the nuclear capability and tested in 1964. China was considered a Third World state and one can see how the ideological and political nature of nations deeply affected their decision to develop a nuclear capability. Arms Race and Nuclear Threat Cold War Period 9. 5. 1 Acquisition of Nuclear Capability by China and start of Arms Race in South Asia Thus, the acquisition of nuclear capability of China in 1964 signalled the beginning of a nuclear arms race in South Asia. The Indo-Pak conflict was not actually the factor responsible for Indias quest for nuclear capability as many scholars claims, though it came in much later. The Kashmir conflict and partition and the three subsequent wars in 1948, 1965 and 1971 did fuel the conventional arms race. 9. 5. 2 India, Pakistan and the Nuclear Arms Race The nuclew arms race in South Asia however was not of Indias making. It rather came after the massive defeat India suffered at Chinese hands in 1962, which hit our whole defense and foreign policy. This followed by the news of Chinese exploding the nuclear device in 1964 shook the Indian political and military establishment and they decided to develop Indias nuclear capability. The decision was also influenced, perhaps, by the Chinese collusion with Pakistan in the 1950s prior to the 1962 war. It brought home to the Indian strategists the real possibility of Chinese and Pakistanis joining hands against India. After 1962, there was thus no looking back and the nuclear arms race reached South Asia. When India conducted the Peaceful Nuclear Explosion (PNE) in 1974, the Pakistanis too decided to go for a nuclear programme. The onset of the Second Cold War with the Soviet invasion in Afghanistan 1979 put Pakistan on the high priority zone of US in its fight against communism. It signalled deeper military cooperation and aid to Pakistan and some say, the beginning of some help even in fledgling Pakistan nuclear weapons programme. As of now, the South Asian region, is definitely a zone of nuclear competition with India consciously keeping its option open and not exercising its capability. This is expressed in its refusal to sign both the Nuclear Proliferation Treaty in the 1995 Review Conference ahd the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) on 24th September, 1996. . 5. 3 Domino Theory in South Asia The South Asian case amply demonstrates the Domino Theory which fuels nuclear arms race or any arms race. First, it was the German threat to Europe which made the US go for the bomb. Then, the Soviet threat made US go in for the bomb again. The bombings in Hiroshima and Nagasaki led Soviets to acquiring the bom b. The common threat to world communism led to Soviets helping the new communist state of China in 1949 with nuclear technology which helped China to conduct a nuclear test in 1964. The Soviets, however, had refused to give nuclear weapon design to China, which became the cause of Sino-Soviet rift. The Indian defeat in 1962 and Pakistans collusion with the Chines led the Indians to develop the nuclear capability by 1974. The Indian explosion coupled with successive defeats in wars with India led the Pakistanis onto the bomb. The cases of other third world countries acquiring the bomb in similar; e. g. the Iraqi and Iranian nuclear programmes. The South African case too is due to perceived survival threats. The other nuclear capable states are Argentina and Brazil-two major States in, Latin America. 9. 5. 4 General Complexion of Arms Race in South Asia Overall one can say that the third world nuclear arms race is definitely a product of the nuclear arms race in the first world and the many conflicts within the Third World sustain it. The cold war military alliance system helped this process. Now, after the collapse of s oviet Union and the massive reduction prior to it and after it in Western nuclear arsenals, nuclear peace has been brought to the world in the sense that we arent always living on the edge of a nuclear holocaust. However, the non-resolution of conflicts in the Third World, e. g. Indo-Pak conflicts, Arab-Israeli conflict is a definite reason for the continuance of nuclear arms race in the Third World. Check Your Progress 7 Note : i) F t Use the space given below for your answers. ii) Check your answer with the model answers given at the end of the w it. ) What are the factor propelling the arms race in South Asia? 2 ) Briefly comment on Indias stand on the nuclear proliferation issue. 9. 6 LET US SUM UP We can conclude this unit by recalling a few pertinent points. Thus: i) The discovery of the. power of the atom in both its creative and destructive senses was possibly the greatest event in 20th century history. The creation and blasting of the nuclear bomb by the US demonstrated its power with telling effect. ii) The ideological conflict between capitalist West and socialist East was the single biggest factor instigating the nuclear arm race until the collapse of one side i. e. , of the USSR in 1991. iii) However, despite the demise of Socialist Soviet Union nuclear weapons still remain the basis for military power and their quest continues by many third world countries e. g. India, Pakistan, South Africa, Israel, Iran, Iraq and North Korea. iv) The nuclear threat to humanity remains even today and there is very little hope of complete disarmament. The only possible way is probably to reduce the number of warheads and number of nations acquiring this technology for settling their disputes. KEY WORDS ABM-Anti-Ballistic Missile System : It is a weapon system designed to defend against a ballistic attack by intercepting and destroying ballistic missiles and their warheads in flight. Arms Race and Nuclear Threat Cold War Period BMD-Ballistic Missile Defense : Systems capable of intercepting and destroying nuclear weapons in flight for defense against a ballistic Missile attack. CFE T naty : The h a t y o n Conventional Armed Forces in Europe : Negotiated in the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), a process which began in 1973 and was signed in 1990 by NATO and WTO countries and came into force on 9 November, 1992. NATO-North Atlantic h a t y Organisation : Created by the US and its allies in Western Europe after the Second World War to counter USSR. WTO-Warsaw %sty Organisation: Created by Soviet Union in 1955 to counter NATO military alliance. Dissolved in 199 1. ICBM-Inter Continental Ballistic Missile: Ground launched Ballistic Missile capable fo delivering a warhead to a target at ranges in excess of 5500 km. INF-Intermediate Range Nuclear forces: are nuclear forces with a range oflfrom 1000 km. upto and including 5500 kms. MIRV-Multiple Independently Targetable Re-entry Vehicles: Re-entry vehicles, carried by a nuclear ballistic missile, which can be directed to separate targets along separte trajectories (as distinct from MRVs). A missile can carry two or more RVs. MRV-Multiple Re-entry Vehicles: Re-entry vehicle, carried by a nuclear missile, directed to the same target as the missiles other RVs. MAD-Mutual Assured Destruction: Concept of reciprocal deterrence which rests on the ability of the nuclear weapon powers to inflict intolerable damage on one another after receiving a nuclear attack. Open Skies h a t y A Treaty signed by 25 CSCE states in 1992, permitting flights by unarmed military or civilian surveillance aircraft over the territory of the signatory states, in the area from Vancouver to Vladivostock. SLBMSubmarine Launched Ballistic Missile: A ballistic Missile launched from a submarine, usually with a range in excess of 5500 kms. START I TREATY : Strategic Arms Reduction lkeaty : Between USA and USSR to reduce strategic nuclear weapons. Strategic Nuclear Weapons : ICBMs, SLBMs and bomber aircraft carrying nuclear weapons of inter-continental range of usually over 5500 kms. Doctriae of Deterrence : It theorically means that the most appropriate way to prevent your enemy employ atomic weapons against you is to put a counter threat by also possessing the atomic bomb. Doctrine of Massive Retaliation: Was a strategy of employing nuclear weapons and outlined by US Secretary of State John Foster Dulles after President Eisenhower took over from President Truman in 1954. The massive retaliation doctrine was founded on responding to any communist inspired aggression, however marginal the confrontation, by means of a massive nuclear strike against major centres in the Soviet Union and China. Doctrine of Limited War : Was propounded by Captain Basil Liddel Hart in the late 1940s. He argued in his book the Revolution in Warfare in 1946 that When both sides possess atomic power total warfare makes nonsense Any unlimited war waged with atomic power would be worse than non-sense, it would be mutually suicidal. He argued that war should, therefore, be a controlled affair and without barbarous excess. However, many US strategies criticized his concept of limited war as practically impossible. Doctrine of Flexible Response : Adapted by NATO in 1967 and based on a flexible and balanced range of appropriate responses, conventional and nuclear, to all levels of aggression or threats. These responses, subject to appropriate political control, are Arms Race and Nuclear Threat designed first to deter aggression and thus preserve peace; but, should aggression unhappily occur, to maintain the security of NATO area within the concept of forward defense. 9. 8 SOME USEFUL BOOKS Lawrence Freedman: The Evolution of Nuclear Strategy. P:M. S. Blackett: Atomic Weapons and East West Relations. Hedly Bull : The Control of the Arms Race. Morton Halperin : Limited War in the Nuclear Age. Freed Ikle : Can Nuclear Deterrence last out the country? Robert Jervis : Perceptions and Misperceptions i n International Politics. Herman Kahn : O n Escalation : Metaphors and Scenarios. Henry Kissinger : Nuclear Weapons and Foreign Policy. Thomas Shelling : Arms and Influence. 9. 9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES Check Your Progress 1 1) See Section 9. 2 2) See Section 9. 2 and sub-section 9. 2. 3 Check Your Progress 2 1) S eeSection9. 3 Check Your Progress 3 1) See Section 9. 4 and sub-sections 9. 4. 1 to 9. 4. 4 2) See Section 9. 4 and sub-section 9. 4. 3 Check Your Progress 4 1) See sub-sections 9. 4. 5 and 9. 4. 6 2) See sub-section 9. 4. 6 Check Your Progress 5 1) See sub-section 9. 4. 7 Check Your Progress 6 1) See sub-section 9. 4. 8 Check Your Progress 7 1) See Section 9. 5 2) See Section 9. 5 and sub-section 9. 5. 2

Islamophobia And The Media Example

Islamophobia And The Media Example Islamophobia And The Media – Coursework Example Islamophobia and the media Islamophobia and the Media Islamophobia is the intense dislike for Muslims and teachings of Islam. In this era of Islam extremist attacks linked to terrorism, Islamophobia is increasingly on the rise. A vast group of disillusioned people is airing negative views about Islam. Such activities, which portray negative concepts about Muslims, increase Islamophobia (Mediasmarts.ca, 2015). Many sections of the mainstream media air their anti-Islamic opinions. Several newspaper article writers focus on negative concepts about Islam such as the ISIS, Al Shabaab, and Al Qaeda (Jablonski, 2015). The media often dwell much on the link between Islam and its extreme members (Alexander, & Moore, 2015). The media place less emphasis on the positive contribution to society that Islam has given. Many newspapers release publications about terrorism and terrorist activities, as well as other negative aspects of Islam in the society.A number of Western news reporters often repo rt about terror activities carried by the extreme elements in Islam (Guardian, 2005). Although there is no official validation of belief in Jihad by Muslims, the media already created an image portraying Islam as a religion, which is not tolerant. Such reporting intends to make the non-Muslim audience develop a dislike for this section of the society. Many features of the television focus on extremism in Islam and the adverse effects of these activities (Global Research, 2015). Magazines and journals also release features portraying a bad image of Islam (Snyder, 2015). Such occurrences tend to mislead the public into Islamophobic tendencies because they brainwash people into fearing all Muslims in general. These sections of the media unknowingly or knowingly portray negative ideologies concerning Islam and dent its image in the eyes of the already skeptical populace. ReferencesAlexander, R., & Moore, H. (2015). Are most victims of terrorism Muslim? Retrieved May 12, 2015, from bbc.c om/news/magazine-30883058Global Research. (2015). Islamophobia and the "Negative Media Portrayal of Muslims". Retrieved 9 May 2015, from globalresearch.ca/islamophobia-and-the-negative-media-portrayal-of-muslims/5440451Guardian. (2005). Media has an anti-Muslim bias, claims report. Retrieved from theguardian.com/media/2005/nov/14/pressandpublishing.raceintheukJablonski, R. (2015). Terror attack at Dallas anti-Islam event raises concerns of future ISIS attacks against U.S. Retrieved May 12, 2015, from cleveland.com/nation/index.ssf/2015/05/terror_attack_at_dallas_anti-i.htmlMediasmarts.ca. (2015). Media Portrayals of Religion: Islam/MediaSmarts. Retrieved 9 May 2015, from http://mediasmarts.ca/diversity-media/religion/media-portrayals-religion-islamSnyder, R. (2015). Islamic graffiti in Scurry County targeted against Lubbock. Retrieved May 12, 2015, from http://kfyo.com/are-islamic-terrorists-making-their-way-through-texas-graffiti-in-scurry-county-targeted-against-lubbock/

Violence, the American Creed and the Rulling Class Essay

Violence, the American Creed and the Rulling Class - Essay Example The following essay forwards the thesis that the American Creed, either wholly or in parts, has historically been used by the elite ruling class of whites for their own gain, primarily as an ideology used to explain and excuse the use of violence to oppress other racial minorities in the process of consolidating power for their own gain. Evidence for the use of the American Creed in this manner is easily seen in several instances in American history, most notably from the end of the Civil War to the time of World War I, a period of time from the 1860s to the 1920s. The essay will take a chronological approach in the discussion while pointing out the specific use of violence with regards to preserving the power of the ruling class. The essay will use three particular instances in American history when the American Creed was used as a justification for racial violence against three separate races: the post-Civil War Reconstruction and violence against the former black slaves, the perio d of the Western frontier and violence against the Native Americans, and finally the excessive violence and torture used on Filipinos by American soldiers during the Filipino-American War. The essay’s first example of the misuse of the American Creed occurs after the Civil War. America entered into a period termed as the Reconstruction, during which white Southerners secured amnesty from then President Andrew Johnson and after taking an oath of allegiance were restored their political and property rights (sans slave ownership) prior to the Civil War. Many blacks who were formerly slaves had found themselves freed as a consequence of the war, and legislation headed by politicians such as Massachusetts senator Charles Sumner and Pennsylvania representative Thaddeus Stevens were making it so the blacks were granted political rights equal to whites.1 However, racial hatreds and the belief that black people were inferior to whites led to those legislations eventually being disrega rded in all but name and the prevalence of discrimination, racially-motivated violence, and segregation. In a bid to seemingly uphold these laws of equality, the concept of â€Å"separate but equal† was devised, with the facilities and services for blacks being highly inferior to non-existent. To enforce this â€Å"separate but equal† rule, an oppressive system based on violent reprisals for breaking social hierarchy was informally established. It became common for blacks who had violated the established hierarchy by speaking or acting out against the whites to end up dead either through beatings or at the hands of a lynching mob.2 Indeed, lynching became a common occurrence which continued well into the middle of the 20th century. In the first example, the portion in the Creed pertaining to equality is put into play. The â€Å"separate but equal† ruling allowed the ruling whites to keep their distance from people they viewed as being lesser than them while upho lding the equality referred to in the Creed. Anyone trying to bridge the separation was seen trying to break the equality, disrupting the Creed and therefore deserving of punishment and violent reprisals. Following the Reconstructio